PAVES: Pneumatic And Vibrotactile Enhanced Shoes for terrain simulation in virtual environments on a treadmill

Simulating terrains to enhance immersion in virtual environments can improve user experience and may also benefit rehabilitation. In this paper, we present a method to physically simulate terrain with a hybrid-actuation insole prototype based on pneumatic and vibrotactile feedback. We utilize six coin cells vibration motors and 3D-printed pneumatic valve system that can inflate and deflate air pressure chambers in the midsole. We ran an exploratory lab study on a treadmill to understand how simulated terrains, including asphalt, grass, and sand is perceived by the user. Our study demonstrates that participants perceived the simulated terrains as distinct and convincing, with the sand terrain, in particular, being rated as the most realistic among the conditions tested.